Worship service. House of God, Crescent City, Florida, 1999

Both Holiness and Pentecostalism emphasize a direct experience with God through baptism with the Holy Spirit. The music invites the congregants to focus on praise, which invites the Holy Spirit to touch, or anoint, them.

The churches cite litera interpretation of the Psalms of David as the basis for making loud music and dancing, or "shouting," to give God praise. Specific citations include Psalms 149:3 ("Let them praise His name in the dance") and Psalms 150:4 ("Praise Him with stringed instruments"). 

Here, Elder Elton Noble plays for the call to the altar as Elder Ernestine Evans preaches. "It's all about those souls out there," said Elder Noble. "You have people out there that's hurting. You have people that are going through things in their home. It's not about that musician."

Click the "Related page" link at the right to view this image in the archive. 

House of God. Crescent City, Florida, 1999

Every week, in about two hundred House of God, Keith Dominion, and Church of the Living God, Jewell Dominion, churches, African Americans praise the Lord while a band led by an electric steel guitarist plays soulful, rhythmic music to help fill the congregation with the Holy Spirit. Urged on by the passionate sounds, congregants dance, shout, sing, and testify.

Located along a dirt road in a small northeast Florida town, this country church was under the responsibility of Bishop Charles E. Campbell of Rochester, New York. His sons, Chuck, Phil, and Darick Campbell, sometimes played here for assemblies and other special meetings.

Willie Eason at home in St. Petersburg, Florida, 1997

The pioneering House of God steel guitarist and powerful, charismatic singer known as Little Willie and His Talking Guitar was also an ordained minister, choir leader, and talented gospel pianist. His mother withdrew him from high school to play for worship services, revivals, and large church assemblies from New York to Miami wih House of God Bishop J.R. Lockley's Gospel Feast Party, a troupe of musicians, preachers, and dancers. He was born in 1921 in the rural community of Lickskillet in Schley County, Georgia, and raised in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Eason recorded eighteen sides on 78-rpm records during the 1940s and 1950s, which served to increase his renown on the national level. He considered himself a conduit for the Holy Spirit.

"The music does not come from me; it comes through me," he declared. He died in 2005.

Revival. Church of the Living God, Tupelo, Mississippi, 2006

Elder Martha Wae Worthem feels the Spirit at a revival in Tupelo, Mississippi. 

Revivals present an opportunity for church members to revive or strengthen their faith, particularly for "backsliders" who have not been attending church regularly or have otherwise strayed from a life of holiness. With an emphasis on dramatic, fiery preaching, revivals create an intensive, charged, large-group atmosphere where congregants can become infused with the Holy Spirit. Newcomers are invited to attend and participate, and may experience conversion. The excitement of the revival moves many people to join the church. 

Florida East Coast State Assembly. House of God, Pompano Beach, Florida, 2001

A girls' youth choir performs a selection for the congregation.

Having been drawn to this cultural community by the steel guitar, I soon realized that an understanding of the cultural milieu that gave birth to the music and in which the music continues to thrive and constantly change was essential to more fully appreciate and understand the music. As time went by, I spent an increasingly larger portion of my time documenting, investigating, and contemplating aspects of the church communities other than the steel guitar music.

Henry Nelson. Bob Stone residence, Gainesville, Florida, 1998

A native of Ocala, Florida, and son of Bishop W.L. Nelson, Henry Nelson lived most of his adult life in New York. He profoundly influenced the steel guitar style of the House of God. His syncopated frams (strums), signature praise-music riffs, manner of playing hymns, and approach to accompanying choirs are heard every Sunday at dozens of House of God churches.

When I took this photo, Henry Nelson had recently suffered a stroke that severely diminished his ability to play the steel guitar. He died in 2001.

Henry Nelson's steel guitar. Gainesville, Florida, 1998

The instrument shows heavy wear from Henry Nelson's spirited playing for countless emotionally charged church meetings for nearly four decades. His music profoundly influenced three generations of musicians. He fitted his eight-string guitar with only six strings.

Musicfest. House of God, Pompano Beach, Florida, 2003

Darrell Carroll is "slain in the Spirit" while other congregants watch over him.  

Carroll stayed down for several minutes. When he was finally able to stand and walk, he sat at a pew and remained very subdued for the rest of the evening. Interestingly, there was no preaching involved in this episode that so moved him, only Eddie Harry's music (off camera)—a testament to the power of the music. The man in the striped sweater is Ivis Hicks, who served as one of the masters of ceremonies for the event.

Lisa Lang. House of God, Pompano Beach, Florida, 2004

One of only a handful of female steel guitarists playing in the sacred steel tradition, "Lady of Steel" Lisa Lang is also an accomplished keyboardist. "We're not as aggressive as the males are in our playing. We bring more of a sophistication. It kind of shapes the way I take my approach to playing steel guitar. In a way, it kind of makes you feel like you are all alone because I'm the only female who is actually playing steel guitar in the East Coast Diocese of Florida.

On the other hand, it's a great thing because I'm inspiring a lot of other women to pick it up and want to play. It opens a lot of doors because people would like to see a woman play the steel, because they've been seeing the men play it for so many years. I have a lot of women come to me and want me to teach them how to play."

Katie Jackson. House of God, Crescent City, Florida, 1998

Powerhouse singer and Baltimore, Maryland, resident Katie Jackson is very highly regarded in the House of God. Known as "the Mahalia Jackson (no relation) of the House of God," she enjoys a reputation as a vocalist whose passionate delivery never fails to move a congregation. Katie Jackson recorded and toured with the Campbell Brothers for many years.

Henry Nelson's homegoing. New Greater Bethel Ministries, Queens Village, New York, 2001

In the House of God and Church of the Living God, a funeral is called a "homegoing." As the term implies, church members believe the deceased is going home to heaven, free at last from the trials of life on earth. Homegoings are some of the most emotional of all church meetings. When expressing grief, friends and family members sometimes "fall out" and users come to their aid. The master of ceremonies and other speakers periodically remind the congregation that they are there to celebrate the deceased's passage to eternity and their freedom from the burdens of mortal life. Praise music and dancing frequently follow these exhortations. 

Here, members of Henry Nelson's extended family express their grief at his homegoing. 

Offertory procession. House of God, Perrine, Florida, 2003

In the House of God, congregants march in a procession to the front of the church to deposit offerings. In this photo, usher Ola Mae Major smiles warmly as she leads the congregation in the procession as the musicians play the "House of God March."

Older church members recall that the tradition began in the 1940s. Chief Helper Bishop Charles Campbell remembered, "Folks would get happy and some would dance while they marched around. As the people got happy, [they] felt the spirit of giving. It became a joyful event, and everyone looked forward to that march to go around the table and pay their offerings in the church." The tradition continues today.

House of God Centennial parade. Nashville, Tennessee, 2003

For four days in September 2003, the House of God celebrated its 100th anniversary at its Nashville headquarters church. The celebration included a parade along Jefferson Street in which clergy and congregants rode in and on convertibles, Humvees, and several floats, many featuring steel guitarists and other musicians. A horse-drawn wagon carried a church member dressed as church founder Mother Tate in period costume.

This float shows a delegation from Jamaica waving to the crowd along the parade route. The House of God also has churches in the Bahamas, Haiti, and Canada.

Sonny Treadway. Church of the Living God, Deerfield Beach, Florida, 2006

Sonny Treadway was born and raised in Michigan and grew up playing steel guitar with Bishop Ron Hall and Calvin Cooke under the guidance of "Uncle" Felton Williams. As a young man, he traveled throughout much of the United States with Church of the Living God Chief Overseer Bishop Mattie Jewell to play for worship services, assemblies, and revivals, usually accompanying steel guitarist Bishop Lorenzo Harrison on standard (fretted) guitar. He ultimately settled in Deerfield Beach, living in a home owned by the church adjacent to the church his wife, Bishop Eunice Treadway, pastored. He made this guitar using found wood for the body, a tuner assembly from a Sho-Bud pedal-steel guitar, and Fender pickups.

Although strongly influenced by Bishop Lorenzo Harrison, Sonny Treadway developed his own distinctive steel guitar style. He also played the saxophone. He usually made cassette tape recordings during a worship service and was often incredulous when he listened to the recordings of his own playing when the Spirit was high. "Some of the stuff I do, I don't know I done it myself when I hear it—notes and slurs and whatever. I really can't picture it until I hear a tape and play it back again, and I still can't figure it out. When did it happen? So much is coming when I'm really into it. I get set into it and my hands was shaking. Like last Sunday, it was beautiful. And I didn't have no control of it."

Bishop Eunice Treadway died in 2009, Sonny Treadway in 2013.

Worship service. Church of the Living God, Toccopola, Mississippi, 2005

Steel guitarist Jerry Flemons and keyboardist Aquila Boles pray during a worship service. 

The steel guitarist plays during most of a Sunday service, excluding the announcements, the early part of the sermon, and congregational prayer. A service is typically two and a half hours long, but the activity of the Holy Spirit sometimes extends a service by a half hour or more. For example, congregants may spontaneously begin to sing from the pews, rise to testify, or require guidance and extended time in seeking the Holy Spirit, all of which the pastor allows. 

Women in hats. House of God headquarters church, Nashville, Tennessee, 1999

Members of the church communities express their belief in God's glory and grace through style and adornment. For many women, beautiful hats provide the crowning touch to their church attire. They range from relatively austere pieces to splendid, lusciously colored forms decorated with feathers, animal prints, rhinestones, sequins, a rich variety of light-reflecting fabrics, and a host of other materials. As is the case in music, verbal arts, and other forms of African American expressive culture, improvisation and creative individuality are important aspects of style and adornment among church community members.

Glenn Lee's homegoing. Bethel Baptist Church, Richmond Heights, Florida, 2000

Gleen Lee died from cancer when he was 32. High-ranking clergy from the House of God, a Miami-Dade County commissioner, and others gave testimony to Glenn Lee's contributions to the church and community. Elder Tommy Phillips shouted, jumped, and dashed across the pulpit as he delivered a fiery Pentecostal eulogy.

Left to right: Glenn Lee's nephew, Roosevelt Collier, steel guitar; Ivis Hicks, master of ceremonies; and Glenn Lee's brother, Derrick Lee, singing. As an expression of solidarity and brotherly love, Derrick Lee shaved his head when his brother lost his hair during chemotherapy.

The Campbell Brothers in Savigliano, Italy, 1999

In the spring of 1999, the Campbell Brothers, featuring singers Katie Jackson and Denise Brown, toured northern Italy for a week, performing in venues that ranged from historic churches to large modern concert halls. The audience that packed this historic church rises in excitement as the group belts out its closing number, "Jump for Joy."

"That trip to Italy was the experience of a lifetime," remembered Phil Campbell. "The response of the audience to our performance that evening was truly amazing. That was probably our second foray into Europe, so there was all that uncertainty as to how our music would be received. It just turned out to be wonderful."

Left to right: Chuck Campbell, pedal-steel guitar; Phil Campbell, guitar; and singers Katie Jackson and Denise Brown. Steel guitarist Darick Campbell and drummer Carlton Campbell are off-camera.

Bryan "Josh" Taylor. House of God headquarters church, Nashville, Tennessee, 1999

Photographed during the Millennium Celebration, Josh Taylor from Miami, Florida, comes from a family of talented instrumentalists, singers, and preachers. His retro hat complements his well-worn vintage Roy Smeck Harmony brand vintage lap-steel guitar. In the early 2000s, Josh Taylor began to play in churches other than the House of God. "I've played for National Church of God, Chuch of God in Christ, New Jerusalem Primitive Baptist, Mount Carmel Baptist Church, and New Covenent."

Wherever he plays, Josh profoundly touches congregations with his spirited music. "Pretty much, if you don't stop playing, people will hurt themselves. They're just overjoyed. I meet some of the big bishops and elders of all these different churches, and right now, they will do almost anything just to have a steel guitar played in their churches."

House of God, headquarters church, Nashville, Tennessee, 1996

House of God steel guitarists recognize Chuck Campbell as an innovative master of the pedal-steel guitar. In 2004, the National Endowment for the Arts honored him with the National Heritage Fellowship—the nation's highest award for traditional artists—for his contributions to the sacred steel musical tradition.

In this photo, Chuck Campbell gives some pointers to Glenn Lee and a group of young musicians. Left to right: Chuck Campbell's stepson, Malcom Robinson; Glenn Lee; Chuck Campbell; steel guitarist and preacher, Elder Eddia Harmon (behind Campbell); bassist Enrico Harmon; and steel guitarist and drummer Dante Harmon.

Kim Love residence, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2000

House of God musicians enjoy a visit with Church of the Living God steel guitarist and rhythm guitarist Kim Love at her home in Philadelphia. After conversing for a while, the musicians played together in various configurations.

Left to right: Kim Love, steel guitarist Acorne "Flip" Coffee Jr., guitarist Shevinah Johnson, and steel guitarist Chuck Campbell.

Elder Aubrey Ghent. Ghent residence, Fort Pierce, Florida, 1992

I photographed Elder Aubrey Ghent on my first day of field documentation of what would become known as the sacred steel musical tradition. Assisted by my friend Michael Stapleton, a music store owner who gave me my first leads to House of God steel guitarists, I recorded Elder Ghent—the son of the influential House of God steel player Henry Nelson—playing unaccompanied on a borrowed instrument, a vintage double-neck Fender someone reduced to one eight-string neck.

Inventively phrased, deftly executed, and distinctly African American, his passionate steel guitar playing was like nothing we had ever heard before.

Henry Nelson's wake. Queen's Village, New York, 2001

A close-up photo of Henry Nelson lying in repose at his wake. The picks on his hand convey the significance of his life as an important church musician. During this solemn occasion, Henry Nelson's son, Elder Aubrey Ghent, quietly played hymns on his steel guitar without accompaniment.

Willie Eason regales the Campbells. Crescent City, Florida, 1998

At a local restaurant before the Sunday morning worship service at the Crescent City House of God, brothers Chuck (left) and Phil Campbell are entertained and enlightened by Willie Eason's animated tales of his adventures as a church musician and independent itinerant musician decades ago. Phil Campbell's son, Carlton Campbell, listens raptly as he records Willie.

As a teenager, Willie Eason played steel guitar at church meetings and revivals throughout the eastern United States with Bishop Lockley's Gospel Feast Party, a group of traveling musicians and preachers. Chuck and Phil Campbell's father, Bishop Charles Campbell, saw Eason perform many times and held him up as a musical standard to which he expected his sons to aspire.

"That conversation with Willie Eason was so profound," stated Phil Campbell. "What Willie shared with us validated our approach to the music. Not only was he musically gifted and creative, he understood the technology of the day. The fact that he would know the difference between the characteristics of 6L6 and EL84 amplifier vacuum tubes and that he and Bishop Lorenzo Harrison would have technical discussions about what was best, how to get the best sound, that's what he shared with us. We pay attention to the sound system, our equipment, and the acoustics of the building to ensure we put forth the best performance in order for the service to be edifying and uplifting."

Rehearsal. House of God, Pompano Beach, Florida, 2003

Musicians rehearse in casual clothes before the Musicfest at nearby Pompano Beach House of God. The event was organized as an opportunity for younger musicians to present their talents and learn from experienced musicians held in esteem by their peers. Unlike the Sacred Steel Conventions, which were open to the public, the Musicfest was not widely publicized, and only church members and church musicians attended. This made the event essentially a worship service with a focus on sharing music. 

Left to right: Darick Campbell, lap steel; Ives Hicks observing; Jay Caver, guitar; Bryan "Josh" Taylor, pedal steel.

Sunday School. Church of the Living God, Toccopola, Mississippi, 2005

Students in Sunday school at a rural church about twenty miles east of Oxford.

As Holiness-Pentecostal denominations, the House of God and Church of the Living God preach salvation. Those who are "saved" believe in living a pure life based on strong faith in God. They follow rules of behavior that include dietary restrictions and the prohibition of alcohol, tobacco, cosmetic makeup, social dancing, watching movies, and numerous other activities proscribed by church governing documents.

Bishop Viola Jackson's Anniversary. House of God, Willacoochee, Georgia, 2005

An anniversary celebration for a pastor, musician, or other significant person is a popular form of tribute among African American churches. During the anniversary celebration, members contribute cash donations and give verbal or musical tributes to the honoree. 

Here, the Reverend Naomi Lott Douglas presents gifts and reads notes of gratitude and blessing to Bishop Viola Jackson in recognition of her decades of service to the church. 

House of God, Perrine, Florida, 1997

Exterior sign of the House of God of Perrine, Florida. The small church about fifteen miles south of Miami enjoys a reputation for its dynamic, creative music and spirit-filled worship services. For years, Elder Robert Lee served as pastor, and his sons Glenn, Alvin, Keith, and Derrick Lee were the core of an inventive musical ensemble.

House of God and Church of the Living God churches range from humble structures tucked away in rural communities and accessed by graded sand roads to large, modern buildings such as the House of God headquarters in Nashville.

Florida East Coast State Assembly. House of God, Pompano Beach, Florida, 2001

The steel guitarist's role is to help the congregation become filled with the Holy Spirit during a worship service. A steel guitarist develops a close working relationship with a preacher and follows his or her cues to lead the church band in adding dramatic emphasis to sermons. In the course of a service, the musicians may accompany spontaneous singing by members of the congregation, playing swinging march music for the offertory procession, initiate "praise breaks," or play other functional music as the situation demands. Generally, the steel guitarist is the only musician to play the lead part.

In this photo, guitarist Darryl Blue leads a spirited praise session. "That service was awesome," recalled Darryl Blue. "Every time I'm playing in church the Lord uses me. I get anointed by the Holy Spirit."

Musicians pictured are Alvin Cordy Jr., bass; Tremaine Young, guitar; Gino Jamison, saxophone; Darryl Blue, steel guitar; Lisa Lang, keyboard; and Linda Blue Lewis (Darryl Blue's aunt), tambourine. The saxophonist is not playing at this time because he cannot hear his instrument above the loudly amplified band.

Revival. Church of the Living God, Tupelo, Mississippi, 2006

A congregant fries chicken for the meal and fellowship that followed the revival. Whether fried, broiled, baked, or barbecued, chicken is the most popular meat for church meals. Church governing documents prohibit the consumption of pork.

Glenn and Alvin Lee, 1997

A highly influential steel guitarist in Florida, Glenn Lee introduced pedal-steel guitar to the House of God churches of his home state. Eclectic in his musical tastes, he incorporated elements of country music, blues, rock, jazz, funk, and other genres into the music he played at the Perrine House of God, about fifteen miles south of Miami, where his father served as pastor. His steel guitar playing reflected influence from his uncle, Bishop Lorenzo Harrison, who established the dominant steel guitar style among Church of the Living God musicians.

Glenn also played saxophone, keyboards, and other instruments, and was a skilled composer and choir arranger-conductor. As his extended family were clergy in both organizations, he served as a musician for the House of God and the Church of the Living God. He also played keyboard regularly at the Bethel Baptist Church in the Miami-area historically black suburb of Richmond Heights.

Glenn pictured here with his brother, Alvin Lee, on guitar. Alvin continues to perform as part of the Lee Boys today. In 2022, the Lee Boys were awarded the Florida Folk Heritage Award for “their contributions that led to a greater appreciation and recognition of the importance of traditional arts and artists in our state.”

Benediction. House of God, Pompano Beach, Florida, 2003

Congregants raise their hands for the benediction that closes the worship service. Women predominate in this photograph; the men present are in the background and not visible. Often, the ratio of women to men at church meetings is five to one or greater. The banner celebrates "100 Years of Holiness" in recognition of the House of God's centennial year.

The House of God's founder, "Mother" Mary Lewis Tate, was a strong believer in the ability of women to lead. When clergy or church members address the congregation from the pulpit, the first phrase they utter is "Giving honor to the Chief Overseer," a statement of respect for female leadership that began when Mother Tate was the church leader and continues today.

Jamaad Batts, steel guitar, Derrick Lee Jr., drums. House of God Church, Palatka, Florida, 2003

To encourage their interest in music, after the worship services, Alvin Lee let Jamaad Batts play his steel guitar, and his nephew, Derrick Lee Jr., play the drums. Today, Jamaad Batts is an accomplished steel guitarist and a minister. 

The electric steel guitar tradition that began in the 1930s has produced three generations of musicians, and a fourth will surely follow. In the twenty-first century, the Internet, social media, and smartphones provide easy access to video and audio recordings of musicians past and present, facilitating the continued transfer of knowledge, skills, and aesthetics from one generation to the next at an accelerated pace.